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- Unit 6 Learning Mr Volkmar's Course Pages Page
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UNIT PREVIEW
Learning helps us adapt to our environment. Pavlov explored classical conditioning, in which we learn to anticipate events, such as being fed or experiencing pain. In his famous studies, Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus just before an unconditioned stimulus, which normally triggered an unconditioned response. After several repetitions, the neutral stimulus alone began triggering a conditioned response resembling the unconditioned response. The behaviorists’ optimism that learning principles would generalize from one response to another and from one species to another has been tempered. We now know that conditioning principles are cognitively and biologically constrained.
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While in classical conditioning we learn to associate two stimuli, in operant conditioning we learn to associate a response and its consequence. Skinner showed that rats and pigeons could be shaped through reinforcement to display successively closer approximations of a desired behavior. Researchers have also studied the effects of positive and negative reinforcers, primary and conditioned reinforcers, and immediate and delayed reinforcers. Critics point to research on latent learning to support their claim that Skinner underestimated the importance of cognitive constraints. Although Skinner’s emphasis on external control also stimulated much debate regarding human freedom and the ethics of managing people, his operant principles are being applied in schools, sports, the workplace, and homes.
A third type of learning that is important among higher animals is what Albert Bandura calls observational learning. Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior is prosocial or antisocial. Research suggests that violence on television leads to aggressive behavior by children and teenagers who watch the programs.
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Learning & Classical Conditioning
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Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. Nature’s most important gift to us may be our adaptability—our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with ever-changing experiences.
Humans and other animals learn by association; our mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence. The events linked in associative learning may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). If a stimulus occurs repeatedly, a response may diminish; in such cases, the organism habituates. In observational learning, we learn from viewing others’ experiences.
Pavlov explored the phenomenon we call classical conditioning, in which organisms learn to associate stimuli and thus anticipate events. This laid the foundation for John B. Watson’s behaviorism, which held that psychology should be an objective science that studied only observable behavior.
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Operant Conditioning
The two characteristics that help us distinguish the two forms of conditioning are the following: In classical conditioning, the organism learns associations between two stimuli, and its behavior is respondent, that is, automatic. In operant conditioning, the organism learns associations between its behavior and resulting events; the organism operates on the environment.
Click on link below for a brief summary on the difference between classical and operant conditioning:
Edward Thorndike’slaw of effect states that rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
Click on link below to see a quick video of Thorndike's law of effect experiments with cats:
Using this as his starting point, Skinner developed a behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control. He explored the principles and conditions of learning through operant conditioning, in which behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli. Skinner used an operant chamber (Skinner box) in his pioneering studies with rats and pigeons. In his experiments, Skinner used shaping, a procedure in which reinforcers, such as food, guide an animal’s natural behavior toward a desired behavior. By rewarding responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior (successive approximations), and ignoring all other responses, researchers can gradually shape complex behaviors. Because nonverbal animals and babies can respond only to what they perceive, their reactions demonstrate which events they can discriminate. In such experiments, the stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement is referred to as the discriminative stimulus.
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A reinforcer is any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response. Reinforcers can be positive (presenting a pleasant stimulus after a response) or negative (reducing or removing an unpleasant stimulus). Primary reinforcers, such as food when we are hungry, are innately satisfying. Conditioned (secondary) reinforcers, such as cash, are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards. Immediate reinforcers, such as the enjoyment of watching late-night TV, offer immediate payback. Delayed reinforcers, such as a weekly paycheck, require the ability to delay gratification. When the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs, continuous reinforcement is involved.
Click on link below for a brief lesson on the differences between primary and secondary reinforncers and punishers:
Learning is rapid but so is extinction if rewards cease. Partial (intermittent) reinforcement produces slower acquisition of the target behavior than does continuous reinforcement, but the learning is more resistant to extinction. Reinforcement schedules may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between responses.
Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules provide reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed time interval, and variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Reinforcement linked to number of responses produces a
higher response rate than reinforcement linked to time. Variable (unpredictable) schedules produce more consistent responding than fixed (predictable) schedules.
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Punishment attempts to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Punishment administers an undesirable consequence, for example, spanking (positive punishment) or withdrawing something desirable, such as taking away a favorite toy (negative punishment). Unlike punishment, negative reinforcement removes an aversive event (an annoying beeping sound) to increase the frequency of a
Honors 10mr. beckers classroom. behavior (fastening a seatbelt).
Punishment is not simply the logical opposite of reinforcement, for it can have several drawbacks, including suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors, teaching discrimination and fear, and increasing aggressiveness.
Click on link below for a brief lesson on the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment:
Rats exploring a maze seem to develop a mental representation (a cognitive map) of the maze even in the absence of reward. Their latent learning becomes evident only when there is some incentive to demonstrate it.
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Some learning occurs after little or no systematic interaction with our environment. For example, we may puzzle over a problem, and suddenly, the pieces fall together as we perceive the solution in a sudden flash of insight.
Research indicates that people may come to see rewards, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing a task. Again, this finding demonstrates the importance of cognitive processing in learning. By undermining intrinsic motivation—the desire to perform a behavior effectively and for its own sake—rewards can carry hidden costs. Extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid threatened punishment. A person’s interest often survives when a reward is used neither to bribe nor to coerce but to signal a job well done.
As with classical conditioning, an animal’s natural predispositions constrain its capacity for operant conditioning. Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Training that attempts to override these tendencies will probably not endure because the animals will revert to their biologically predisposed patterns (instinctive drift).
Skinner was criticized for repeatedly insisting that external influences, not internal thoughts and feelings, shape behavior and for urging the use of operant principles to control people’s behavior. Critics argue that he dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and by seeking to control their actions. Skinner countered: People’s behavior is already controlled by external reinforcers,
so why not administer those consequences for human betterment?
Operant principles have been applied in a variety of settings. For example, in schools, Web-based learning, online testing systems, and interactive student software embody the operant ideal of individualized shaping and immediate reinforcement. In sports, performance is enhanced by first reinforcing small successes and then gradually increasing the challenge. In the workplace, positive reinforcement for jobs well done has boosted employee productivity. At home, parents can reward their children’s desirable behaviors and not reward those that are undesirable. To reach our personal goals, we can monitor and reinforce our own desired behaviors and cut back on incentives as the behaviors become habitual. Biofeedback, a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, has been used successfully to enable people to treat tension headaches.
Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning. They both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. Both classical and operant conditioning are influenced by biological and cognitive predispositions. The two forms of learning differ in an important way. In classical conditioning, organisms associate different stimuli that they do not control and respond automatically. In operant conditioning, organisms associate their own behaviors with their consequences. Download showbiz street talk rar free software.
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Learning by Observation
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Among higher animals, especially humans, learning does not occur through direct experience alone. Observational learning also plays a part. The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior is often called modeling. Mirror neurons, located in the brain’s frontal lobes, demonstrate a neural basis for observational learning. Our brain’s mirror neurons underlie our intensely social nature.
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Bandura believes that we imitate because of reinforcements and punishments—those received by the model as well as by the imitator. By watching others, we learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those we are observing. We tend to imitate models that we perceive as similar to us, successful, or admirable.
Prosocial models have prosocial effects. People who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt similar behavior in others. Models are most effective when their actions and words are consistent. Exposed to a hypocrite, children tend to imitate the hypocrisy by doing what the model does and saying what the model says.
Research indicates that much violence shown on television goes unpunished, is portrayed as justified, and involves an attractive perpetrator. These conditions provide a recipe for a violence-viewing effect. However, correlational studies that link viewing violence with violent behavior do not indicate the direction of influence. Those who behave violently may enjoy watching violence on TV, or some third factor may cause observers both to behave violently and to prefer watching violent programs. To establish cause and effect, researchers have designed experiments in which some participants view violence and others do not. Later, given an opportunity to express violence, the people who viewed violence tend to be more aggressive and less sympathetic. In addition to imitating what they see, observers may become desensitized to brutality, whether on TV or in real life.
Click on link below for a TED Talk on how TV affects the brain of children:
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